Social Inequalities in Mental Health and Self-Perceived Health in the First Wave of COVID-19 Lockdown in Latin America and Spain: Results of an Online Observational Study.

COVID-19 lockdowns greatly affected the mental health of populations and collectives. This study compares the mental health and self-perceived health in five countries of Latin America and Spain, during the first wave of COVID 19 lockdown, according to social axes of inequality. This was a cross-sectional study using an online, self-managed survey in Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain. Self-perceived health (SPH), anxiety (measured through GAD-7) and depression (measured through PHQ-9) were measured along with lockdown, COVID-19, and social variables. The prevalence of poor SPH, anxiety, and depression was calculated. The analyses were stratified by gender (men = M; women = W) and country. The data from 39,006 people were analyzed (W = 71.9%). There was a higher prevalence of poor SPH and bad mental health in women in all countries studied. Peru had the worst SPH results, while Chile and Ecuador had the worst mental health indicators. Spain had the lowest prevalence of poor SPH and mental health. The prevalence of anxiety and depression decreased as age increased. Unemployment, poor working conditions, inadequate housing, and the highest unpaid workload were associated with worse mental health and poor SPH, especially in women. In future policies, worldwide public measures should consider the great social inequalities in health present between and within countries in order to tackle health emergencies while reducing the health breach between populations.

Menstrual health and management during the COVID-19 syndemic in the Barcelona area (Spain): A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Available evidence suggests that menstrual health and management have been impaired during the COVID-19 syndemic. However, research in this area is scarce, and it is failing to voice the experiences of women and people who menstruate regarding their menstrual experiences. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to explore the experiences of menstrual health and menstrual management among women and people who menstruate in the Barcelona area (Spain) during the COVID-19 syndemic. DESIGN: This is a qualitative study, conducted taking a critical feminist approach, is embedded in the 'Equity and Menstrual Health in Spain' project. METHODS: It includes photo-elicitation individual interviews with 34 women and people who menstruate in the area of Barcelona (Spain). Data were collected in person and through telephone calls between December 2020 and February 2021. Analyses were performed using Thematic Analysis. RESULTS: Main findings navigated through the menstrual changes experienced by some participants, especially women living with long COVID-19, and the barriers to access healthcare and menstrual products during COVID-19. While some participants experienced menstrual poverty, this did not appear to be exacerbated during COVID-19. Instead, access to menstrual products was compromised based on products' availability and mobility restrictions. Menstrual management and self-care were generally easier, given that menstrual experiences were almost exclusively relegated to private spaces during lockdown periods. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the need to further research and policy efforts towards promoting menstrual health and equity, considering social determinants of health, and taking intersectional and gender-based approaches. These strategies should be further encouraged in social and health crises such as the COVID-19 syndemic.

[Narratives on changes in health-related behaviours during lockdown in Spain according to gender]. / Narrativas sobre cambios de conductas en salud durante el confinamiento en España según género.

OBJECTIVE: To explore experiences related to health-oriented behaviours during lockdown in the Spanish resident population from a gender perspective. METHOD: Qualitative research with a critical and feminist approach. Twenty-nine semi-structured interviews (17 women and 12 men) were conducted between June and July 2020 via telephone with people who had previously answered an online survey. The interviews were transcribed and a thematic content analysis was carried out, differentiating between the experiences of women and men. The data were triangulated by the research team. RESULTS: Among women, greater diversity emerged in terms of health behaviours. Among them, the difficult experiences related to COVID-19, the complexity of living together and doing unpaid care work, as well as the importance of support networks, stood out. Among men, there were different attitudes towards sport, self-care and having time for healthy eating were positively valued, and there was a good assessment of coexistence and organisation in household chores. In both men and women, work overload and economic problems were related to emotional distress and difficulties in carrying out healthy activities. CONCLUSIONS: Health-oriented behaviours during lockdown differed according to gender. They were mostly limited to COVID-19 experiences, socio-economic conditions and burden of care. It is essential to tailor public health and primary care programmes according to people's life moments, taking into account their social context and questioning traditional gender roles.

Spanish residents' experiences of care during the first wave of the COVID-19 syndemic: a photo-elicitation study.

PURPOSE: The main aim of this research was to explore experiences of care during the lockdown of the first wave of COVID-19 syndemic in Spain. METHODS: This is a qualitative and explorative study using self-photo-elicitation as a data collection method. Fifteen participants (Twelve women and three men) shared 25 photographs and one video between the June 18 and August, 2020. Participants' photographs and texts were collected online. Data were analysed based on Thematic Analysis. RESULTS: Three emerging categories were constructed: 1) the deconstruction of care: self-care and collective care 2) the crisis of care and gendered care, 2) beyond anthropocentrism: animalism and ecology. Findings indicate the need to understand "care" in terms of social reproduction, including self-care, care towards other humans and non-human animals, and collective care. Also, the need to care for planetary health and to be in contact with nature as a form of self-care and social care. CONCLUSIONS: Care in a period of social and health crisis puts human relationships and also non-human life at the centre. Care requires adopting taking an ecological one-health perspective.

Self-Reported Anxiety in Spain: A Gendered Approach One Year After the Start of COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has an impact on mental health. However, there is little evidence on how different axes of social inequity influence mental health from a gender perspective and over time. Our aim is to analyze anxiety according to gender identity and other axes of social inequities (migration status, sexual orientation, age, and employment conditions) one year after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. We conducted a cross-sectional study among adults living in Spain with an online survey from April 8 to May 28, 2021. The main variable was anxiety measured by Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7). Sex-stratified multivariate logistic regression models were constructed to assess the association between axes of inequities and anxiety. Our findings (N = 2,053) suggest that women have greater anxiety risk than men (35.2 vs. 28.2%, respectively). We observe in both genders that there is a clear age gradient, with anxiety decreasing as age increases; and that there is an association between worsening employment status and anxiety risk, although there is a difference between women by education level. Additionally, not having Spanish nationality is also associated with greater anxiety risk in women. In men, identifying as non-heterosexual is associated with a higher risk of anxiety. The axes of inequities have different effects according to gender identity. These differences in anxiety risk by population subgroup must be taken into account in order to sensibly and equitably treat the surge in mental health disorders brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic.

[Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on self-perceived health in Chile by gender]. / Impacto del confinamiento por la COVID-19 en la salud autopercibida en Chile según género.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the social factors associated with self-perceived health during the COVID-19 lockdown in the Chilean resident population according to gender perspective. METHOD: Cross-sectional study conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown between May 17 and August 17, 2020 with an online survey. Self-perceived health was analysed in the population aged 18 years or older in relation to social variables. Multivariate logistic regression models were constructed to assess the association between independent variables with self-perceived health, through adjusted odds ratio (aOR). Analyses were stratified by sex (M: men; W: women). RESULTS: 5981 persons were analysed (women: 63.9%). 29.6% of women and 19.2% of men reported poor self-perceived health. In women it worsens with increasing age. Worse self-perceived health was mainly associated with lack of social support (ORa M: 2.05; ORa W: 2.34), concern about living together at home (ORa M: 1.66; ORa W: 1.38), perceived inadequate housing conditions (ORa M: 1.89; ORa W: 2.63), and disagreement with government measures (ORa M: 2.80; ORa W: 1.82). In women, it was also associated with informal work or being inactive in the labour market (ORa: 2.11). In men worse self-perceived health was associated with being self-employed (ORa: 1.65; confidence interval [CI]: 1.11-2.45) and has secondary education (ORa: 2.81; CI: 1.32-5.98). CONCLUSIONS: The social impact of lockdown in self-perceived health is related to gender, age, care work, and socioeconomic conditions, as well as, by disagreement with the measures implemented to manage the pandemic.

Self-Reported Menstrual Alterations During the COVID-19 Syndemic in Spain: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Introduction: Available evidence suggests that there might be an association between the stressors experienced during the COVID-19 syndemic and changes in menstrual patterns. The aim of this study was to assess self-reported menstrual alterations during the COVID-19 syndemic among women and people who menstruate aged 18-55 in Spain. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional online survey-based study was conducted (March-July 2021). Descriptive statistics were calculated and multivariate logistic regression models were constructed. This study was conducted as part of the "Equity and Menstrual Health in Spain" research project. Results: Among participants (N=17,455), 39.4% reported menstrual alterations since the start of the syndemic. Participants self-reporting long COVID-19 presented higher odds of menstrual alterations (aOR: 1.34, 95% CI, 1.15-1.57). In participants with no history of COVID-19, the risk for self-reported menstrual alterations was significantly higher based on employment situation, among participants experiencing financial issues (eg, financial issues always/many times <12 months: aOR: 1.68, 95% CI, 1.48-1.90), poorer self-perceived health (eg, poor: aOR: 2.00, 95% CI, 1.31-3.07), and those diagnosed with polycystic ovary syndrome (aOR: 1.13, 95% CI, 1.02-1.26). Among participants with a self-reported COVID-19 diagnosis, factors that significantly increased the odds for menstrual alterations were experiencing financial strains (eg, financial issues always/many times <12 months: aOR: 1.53, 95% CI, 1.09-2.14), poorer self-perceived health (eg, poor: aOR: 3.09, 95% CI, 1.01-9.52). Overall, factors that decreased the odds of reporting menstrual alterations included age >25, being a carer, not having a gynecological condition and using hormonal contraception. Discussion and conclusions: Findings suggest an impact of the COVID-19 syndemic on menstrual patterns. Social inequities in reporting menstrual alterations were identified. While the risk of reporting menstrual alterations was higher among participants with long COVID-19, evidence is not conclusive. Further research on menstrual health in the context of COVID-19 is needed, also to inform policy and practice.

Impacto del confinamiento por la COVID-19 en la salud autopercibida en Chile según género Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on self-perceived health in Chile by gender

Objetivo: Analizar los factores sociales asociados a la salud autopercibida durante el confinamiento en la población residente en Chile según la perspectiva de género. Método: Estudio transversal realizado mediante encuesta online durante el confinamiento por la COVID-19 entre el 17 de mayo y el 17 de agosto de 2020. Se analizó la salud autopercibida en población de 18 años o más en relación con variables sociales. Se construyeron modelos de regresión logística multivariante para evaluar la asociación entre las variables independientes con la salud autopercibida, a través de odds ratio ajustadas (ORa). Los análisis se estratificaron por sexo (H: hombres;M: mujeres). Resultados: Se analizaron 5981 personas (el 63,9% mujeres). El 29,6% de las mujeres y el 19,2% de los hombres reportaron mala salud autopercibida. En las mujeres, empeora al aumentar la edad. La peor salud autopercibida se asoció principalmente con la falta de apoyo social (ORa H: 2,05;ORa M: 2,34), la preocupación por la convivencia en el hogar (ORa H: 1,66;ORa M: 1,38), percibir inadecuadas condiciones de la vivienda (ORa H: 1,89;ORa M: 2,63) y el desacuerdo con las medidas gubernamentales (ORa H: 2,80;ORa M: 1,82). En las mujeres, además, se asoció al trabajo informal o estar inactivas laboralmente (ORa: 2,11). En los hombres, una peor salud autopercibida se asoció a ser trabajador independiente (autónomo) (ORa: 1,65;intervalo de confianza [IC]: 1,11-2,45) y tener educación secundaria (ORa: 2,81;IC: 1,32-5,98). Conclusiones: El impacto social del confinamiento en la salud autopercibida se relaciona con el sexo, la edad, el trabajo de cuidados y las condiciones socioeconómicas, así como con el desacuerdo con las medidas implementadas para gestionar la pandemia.

Social conditions and mental health during COVID-19 lockdown among people who do not identify with the man/woman binomial in Spain.

Evidence suggests that non-binary people have poorer mental and physical health outcomes, compared with people who identify within the gender binomial (man/woman). Research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health has been conducted worldwide in the last few months. It has however overlooked gender diversity. The aim of our study was to explore social and health-related factors associated with mental health (anxiety and depression) among people who do not identify with the man/woman binomial during COVID-19 lockdown in Spain. A cross-sectional study with online survey, aimed at the population residing in Spain during lockdown, was conducted. Data were collected between the 8th of April until the 28th of May 2020, the time period when lockdown was implemented in Spain. Mental health was measured using the Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale for anxiety, and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) for depression. The survey included the question: Which sex do you identify with? The options "Man", "Woman", "Non-binary" and "I do not identify" were given. People who answered one of the last two options were selected for this study. Multivariate regression logistic models were constructed to evaluate the associations between sociodemographic, social and health-related factors, anxiety and depression. Out of the 7125 people who participated in the survey, 72 (1%) identified as non-binary or to not identify with another category. People who do not identify with the man/woman binomial (non-binary/I do not identify) presented high proportions of anxiety (41.7%) and depression (30.6%). Poorer mental health was associated with social-employment variables (e.g., not working before the pandemic) and health-related variables (e.g., poor or regular self-rated health). These findings suggest that social inequities, already experienced by non-binary communities before the pandemic, may deepen due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gender-based approach on the social impact and mental health in Spain during COVID-19 lockdown: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: Lockdown has impacts on people's living conditions and mental health. The study aims to assess the relations between social impact and mental health among adults living in Spain during COVID-19 lockdown measures, taking a gender-based approach into account. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: We conducted a cross-sectional study among adults living in Spain during the lockdown of COVID-19 with an online survey from 8 April to 28 May 2020. The main variable was mental health measured by Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale for anxiety and the Patient Health Questionnaire for depression. Sex-stratified multivariate ordinal logistic regression models were constructed to assess the association between social impact variables, anxiety and depression. RESULTS: A total of 7053 people completed this survey. A total of 31.2% of women and 17.7% of men reported anxiety. Depression levels were reported in 28.5% of women and 16.7% of men. A higher proportion of anxiety and depression levels was found in the younger population (18-35 years), especially in women. Poorer mental health was mainly related to fear of COVID-19 infection, with higher anxiety levels especially in women (adjusted ordinal OR (aOR): 4.23, 95% CI 3.68 to 4.87) and worsened economy with higher levels of depression in women (aOR: 1.51, 95% CI 1.24 to 1.84), and perceived inadequate housing to cope with lockdown was especially associated with anxiety in men (aOR: 2.53, 95% CI 1.93 to 3.44). CONCLUSION: The social impact of the lockdown is related to gender, age and socioeconomic conditions. Women and young people had worse mental health outcomes during lockdown. It is urgent to establish strategies for public health emergencies that include mental health and its determinants, taking a gender-based approach into account, in order to reduce health inequities.